The Inner Solar System rar (1615300120)

The Inner Solar System: The Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars (An Explorer's Guide to the Universe)

By Erik Gregersen

* Publisher: Rosen Education Service

* Number Of Pages: 224

* Publication Date: 2009-12-20

* ISBN-10 / ASIN: 1615300120

* ISBN-13 / EAN: 9781615300129

Introduction:

Ancient people around the globe

once believed the Moon, Sun, planets,

and stars were gods and goddesses,

demons and angels revolving around

Earth, the centre of their universe. Little

did they know that Earth is a mere speck

in a vast universe. It took many centuries

for people to realize that Earth isn’t

even the centre of our solar system. It is,

however, one of the components of

what’s known as the inner solar system—

comprised of the Sun, four terrestrial

planets, and the moons that orbit

them—which is examined thoroughly in

this book.

With the development of modern

astronomy and the advent of scientifi c

tools, particularly the telescope, scientists

began examining the solar system

and theorizing about our place in it. The

solar system and the space just beyond it

form the extent of our physical reach in

the universe. Even with manned and

unmanned spacecraft, we may never

explore farther than the outer boundary

of the solar system. So scientists observe

and study our solar system in order to

learn more about the universe itself.

Much of our knowledge comes from the

celestial bodies within the inner solar

system, but there is still much to learn.

Our solar system includes the Sun,

eight planets (formerly nine), many moons,

Introduction 10

Chapter 1: Composition and Origin

of the Solar System 19comets, asteroids, and traces of gas and

dust known as interplanetary medium.

Although the solar system still presents

mysteries, scientists have made great

strides over the past 400 years in explaining

its origins. The commonly accepted

explanation today says that billions of

years ago a massive cloud of gas and

dust began to collapse in on itself due

to gravity. The cloud began to rotate as

it collapsed, forming a disk shape.

Nuclear reactions began to occur at the

centre due to the immense heat and

pressure, and the Sun began to form.

Material in the rest of the disk slowly

collided and merged together to form

planets and moons.

The outer planets are much bigger

than the inner planets and are largely

made up of gases. From Jupiter out, the

temperature is so cold that water exists

mainly as ice. Large amounts of ice

joined together when the outer planets

formed, giving them more mass and

greater gravitational pull. They drew in

large amounts of hydrogen, helium, and

other gases, creating “gas giants.”

However, water in the inner solar system

remained liquid, allowing the inner

planets to become much smaller and

rockier. These ideas about the creation

of the solar system are widely supported

by many scientists.......................................................

Orbits 19

Planets and Their Moons 20

The Interplanetary Medium 21

Origin of the Solar System 23

The Kant-Laplace Nebular Hypothesis 24

Modern Ideas 25

Formation of the Solar Nebula 26

Differentiation into Inner and Outer Planets 26

Compositional Data for Selected Solar

System Objects 28

Later Stages of Planetary Accretion 29

Solution to the Angular Momentum Puzzle 29

Chapter 2: The Sun 31

Physical Properties 31

Energy Generation and Transport 33

Evolution 35

Helioseismology 35

The Solar Atmosphere 36

The Chromosphere 38

Revelations in the Dark 40

The Corona 41

Solar Wind 42

Solar Activity 43

Sunspots 43

Prominences 47

Flares 49

Solar-Terrestrial Effects 51

History of Solar Observations 52

Chapter 3: Mercury 56

Planetary Data for Mercury 59

Basic Astronomical Data 59

Observational Challenges 60

Orbital and Rotational Effects 61

Mercury in Tests of Relativity 62

Mariner 10 and Messenger 63

The Atmosphere 63

The Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere 65

Character of the Surface 66

Caloris Basin and Surrounding Region 68

Plains 68

Scarps 70

Surface Composition 72

Mercury’s Formation 73

Later Development 74

Chapter 4: Venus 76

Basic Astronomical Data 77

Planetary Data for Venus 80

The Atmosphere 81

Interaction with the Solar Wind 84

Character of the Surface 84

Surface Composition 85

Surface Features 86

Features Due to Tectonic Activity 88

Belts and Rifts 88

Coronae and Tesserae 90

Volcanic Features 93

Impact Craters 97

Interior Structure and Geologic Evolution 100

Observations from Earth 101

Spacecraft Exploration 103

Chapter 5: Earth 107

Basic Planetary Data 109

The Astronomical Unit 110

Planetary Data for Earth 112

The Atmosphere 113

The Hydrosphere 116

The Outer Shell 117

The Interior 120

The Geomagnetic Field and Magnetosphere 121

Development of Earth’s Structure and

Composition 123

Accretion of the Early Earth 123

Effects of Planetesimal Impacts 124

Planetary Differentiation 125

Earth Impacts 126

Objects That Pose a Threat 128

Frequency of Impacts 130

The Tunguska Event 132

NEO Search Programs 132

Determining the Hazard Potential of an NEO 134

Defending Earth from a Colliding Object 135

Chapter 6: The Moon 136

Distinctive Features 138

Mascons 139

Principal Characteristics of the

Earth-Moon System 139

Properties of the Moon and the

Earth-Moon System 140

Motions of the Moon 144

The Atmosphere 145

The Lunar Surface 145

Eff ects of Impacts and Volcanism 147

Small-Scale Features 150

Notable Surface Features 151

Lunar Rocks and Soil 154

Main Groupings 156

The Lunar Interior 157

Structure and Composition 157

Internal Activity of the Past and Present 158

Origin and Evolution 158

Lunar Exploration 160

Early Studies 160

History of Lunar Observation and Exploration 161

Exploration by Spacecraft 163

First Robotic Missions 163

Apollo to the Present 164

Lunar Resources 169

Chapter 7: Eclipses 172

Phenomena Observed During Eclipses 173

Lunar Eclipse Phenomena 173

Solar Eclipse Phenomena 173

Occultations 175

Transits of Mercury and Venus 176

The Geometry of Eclipses, Occultations,

and Transits 177

Eclipses of the Sun 177

Eclipses of the Moon 178

The Frequency of Solar and Lunar Eclipses 178

Cycles of Eclipses 179

Prediction and Calculation of Solar and

Lunar Eclipses 180

Eclipse Research Activities 182

Solar Research 182

Discovery of Helium 183

Support for the General Theory of

Relativity 183

Temperature of the Corona 184

Lunar Research 185

Eclipses in History 185

Literary and Historical References 187

Chinese 187

Assyrian 190

Babylonian 191

Jewish 192

Greek 192

Roman 194

Medieval European 195

Medieval Islamic 197

Uses of Eclipses for Chronological Purposes 199

Uses of Eclipses for Astronomical Purposes 201

Chapter 8: Mars 204

Basic Astronomical Data 206

Planetary Data for Mars 207

Early Telescopic Observations 208

The Canals of Mars 209

Mars as Seen from Earth 210

Surface Features 210

Polar Regions 210

Transient Atmospheric Phenomena 211

The Atmosphere 212

Basic Atmospheric Data 212

Composition and Surface Pressure 213

Composition of the Martian Atmosphere 213

Atmospheric Structure 215

Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics 216

Character of the Surface 217

Southern Cratered Highlands 219

Sparsely Cratered Plains 222

Surface Composition 222

Valleys and Lakes 223

Outflow Channels and Oceans 223

Valles Marineris 224

Tharsis and Elysium 225

Olympus Mons 226

Polar Sediments, Ground Ice, and Glaciers 227

Notable Surface Features 228

Chryse Planitia 228

Hellas 229

Nirgal Vallis 229

Syrtis Major 229

Utopia Planitia 230

Vastitas Borealis 230

The Interior 230

Meteorites from Mars 231

Martian Moons 232

Phobos 233

Moons of Mars 233

Deimos 234

Spacecraft Exploration 235

The Question of Life on Mars 237

Glossary 239

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