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Fritz Allhoff, ""

A collection of essays discussing a wide range of sciences and the central philosophical issues associated with them, presenting the sciences collectively to encourage a greater understanding of their associative theoretical foundations, as well as their relationships to each other.

•Offers a new and unique approach to studying and comparing the philosophies of a variety of scientific disciplines

•Explores a wide variety of individual sciences, including mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology and economics

•The essays are written by leading scholars in a highly accessible style for the student audience

•Complements more traditional studies of philosophy of science

Contents

Notes on Contributors vii

List of Figures xii

Unit 1: Introduction 1

1 Philosophies of the Sciences 3

Fritz Allhoff

2 Philosophy of Science 9

Richard DeWitt

Unit 2: Philosophy of the Exact Sciences 39

3 Philosophy of Logic 41

Otávio Bueno

4 Philosophy of Mathematics 68

Otávio Bueno

5 Philosophy of Probability 92

Aidan Lyon

Unit 3: Philosophy of the Natural Sciences 127

6 Philosophy of Physics 129

Richard DeWitt

7 Philosophy of Chemistry 163

Joachim Schummer

8 Philosophy of Biology 184

Matthew H. Haber, Andrew Hamilton,

Samir Okasha, and Jay Odenbaugh

vi Contents

9 Philosophy of Earth Science 213

Maarten G. Kleinhans, Chris J.J. Buskes, and

Henk W. de Regt

Unit 4: Philosophy of the Behavioral and Social Sciences 237

10 Philosophy of the Cognitive Sciences 239

William Bechtel and Mitchell Herschbach

11 Philosophy of Psychology 262

Edouard Machery

12 Philosophy of Sociology 293

Daniel Little

13 Philosophy of Economics 324

Daniel M. Hausman

Index 356

Philosophy of science is changing. Or maybe it already has. During the

twentieth century, there was a tremendous amount of brilliant work done

in the philosophy of science by people such as Rudolf Carnap (1928),

Karl Popper (1935),2 Thomas Kuhn (1996), Imre Lakatos (1999),3 and so

on. But what defined much of that work was its generality: all of these

people, as well as the traditions in which they worked, were concerned

with general methodological issues in science. Whether talking about the

logical structure of science, the demarcation of science from other endeavors,

the nature of scientific change, or the features and merits of

scientific research programs, these contributions almost completely transcended

disciplinary boundaries within science. Certainly people were very

impressed with physics, especially the experimental success of Einstein’s

theory of general relativity;4 philosophy of physics was thoroughly

launched in the early twentieth century and, like philosophy of logic and

philosophy of mathematics, it has roots in ancient Greece.5 And Popper

evinced some hostility to natural selection – complaining that it was

“almost tautological” (Popper 1935, §37) – though he eventually recanted

(Popper 1978). But aside from a few exceptions, most of the work for which

philosophy of science in the twentieth century will be remembered – and

especially from the 1920s through the 1960s – is not endemic to any

particular scientific discipline.

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